Mexico Travel

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Italy travel Naples -

Naples guide - Naples travel guide - Naples - guide to Naples - Italy travel Naples - airport Naples Naples guide - Naples travel guide - Naples - guide to Naples - Italy travel Naples - airport Naples - travel links Wednesday, 28 December 05 - 11:43 pm Top destinations Art Cities Beaches Lakes Mountains Spa Resorts Regions guides Abruzzo & Molise Alto Adige Apulia Basilicata & Calabria Campania Emilia Romagna Friuli Venezia Giulia Lazio Liguria Lombardy Marche Piedmont Sardinia Sicily Tuscany Trentino Umbria Valle d'Aosta Veneto Cities guides Aosta Asiago & 7 comuni Asolo Assisi Belluno & Dolomiti Venete Bologna Bolzano Brescia Bressanone Caorle & Bibione Capri Catania Cervia & Cesenatico's Beaches Chianti, Valdelsa, Valdarno Comacchio's Beaches Cortina d'Ampezzo Courmayeur M.Bianco Elba & Capraia Florence Garda Lake - Eastern Side Grosseto & Maremma Ischia Jesolo & Eraclea Como Lake & Lecco Lucca & Garfagnana Madonna di Campiglio Merano Milan Monte Cervino Montecatini Terme Naples Padua Palermo Pisa Portofino & Tigullio Gulf Ragusa Ravenna's Beaches Ravenna City Rimini, Riccione, Cattolica Riviera dei Fiori: Sanremo & Imperia Riviera del Brenta Rome Rovereto Rovigo e Delta del Po San Martino di Castrozza, Primiero, Val Venoi Siena Siracusa Sorrento & Amalfi Taormina Terme e Colli Euganei Turin Trento Treviso Val di Fassa Val di Fiemme Venice Verona Versilia & Viareggio Vicenza Naples Hotels Reserve Naples Hotels: save up 70% on rooms! Compare offers & book on line at hotel's web sites. About Campania Pompei: in search of a lost civilization The city of Pompeii was established in the XII century B.C. and enjoyed great prosperity from the point of view of culture, economy and city planning until 79 A.D. when the terrible eruption of Vesuvius covered everything in lava and small stones... The Cilento, discover its charm and beauty The Cilento is the southernmost part of Campania, before Basilicata, between the plains of the river Sele to the north... The Sorrento Peninsula, between the mythical sea and romantic land. The setting of a scene from the Odyssey and a land crossed by Grand Tour poets and scholars, the Sorrento Peninsula is a magical place... Teatro San Carlo - Napoli In this site you will find the complete schedule of the famous Neapolitan Opera House ... Naples Guide Italy THINGS TO KNOW Getting there History and culture THINGS TO SEE Churches and Museums Historical buildings and monuments Places and charm THINGS TO TRY Eating and Drinking Shopping Hotels and lodgings THINGS TO EXPERIENCE Events La Dolce Vita ITINERARIES A special day On the pizza trail Vesuvius, Pompeii and Herculaneum Aromas and tastes Directories of Web Sites Naples Italy Naples Hotels Downloads Naples Guide in PDF format Sunny, lively, sassy and simply unforgettable. Naples is music, theatre, Vesuvius, coffee, pizza and the sea… all those colors, sounds and aromas that capture your attention, win you over and seduce you. With Guide to Naples from travelplan.it you can discover the magical dimension of this wonderful city and you can learn to love it even before you get there. You will find lots of useful information about life and culture in Naples: history, art, food and drink, shopping, events, itineraries. Historical shops and coffee shops, restaurants and hotels in Naples . Getting there Naples can be easily reached thanks to a very efficient road and train network that connects the city with the rest of Italy, and also thanks... >>> History and culture Our tourists’ guide to Naples would not be complete without a section on the history of this amazing city. Let’s discover it together... >>> Churches and Museums A selection of religious buildings and museums that you just shouldn’t miss. Historical and artistic notes on the works of art and useful info... >>> Historical buildings and monuments All the buildings to see and the castles to visit in Naples... >>> Places and charm All the most charming places in this wonderful city: SpaccaNapoli, the Quartieri Spagnoli, Via San Gregorio Armeno... >>> Eating and Drinking Unique cuisine, a permanent halfway between refined and traditional, where the typical Campania home produce is prepared using tasty, elaborate recipes... >>> Shopping Lots of useful info on what to buy in Naples: craftwork, food and drink produce, fashion items and where to buy them... >>> Hotels and lodgings All the advice you need for those who want to sleep in Naples : lots of ideas for all pockets. From hotels to hostels... >>> Events A city that is just overflowing with life, that regularly becomes even more animated with its folk festivals and international events... >>> La Dolce Vita A night in the Naples clubs and wine bars, for a taste of the magical atmosphere of this truly lively city... >>> A special day A special itinerary for those who only have one day to visit this incredible city... >>> On the pizza trail History, traditions and interesting facts linked to this famous food that is the epitome of Italian cooking worldwide... >>> Vesuvius, Pompeii and Herculaneum The terrible and seductive picture of one of the most famous volcanoes in the world and the ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum , the cities that fell victim to the volcano’s destructive power... >>> Aromas and tastes A journey to discover the local produce, cheeses, pastries and the ritual involved in making a real cup of coffee... >>> More guides on: Region: Campania Campania Cities: Sorrento & Amalfi Capri Ischia Click to view the map Servizi per le aziende Acquista la tua visibilità su Travel Plan Netplan Travel Network Travel Guides ItalyTravel Guides | VeniceTravel Guide | FlorenceTravel Guide | RomeTravel Guide | MilanTravel Guide | NaplesTravel Guide | Palermo Travel Guide | Taormina Travel Guide | SicilyTravel Guide | Cortina Travel Guide | VeronaTravel Guide | JesoloTravel Guide | Lucca & Garfagnana Travel Guide | Treviso Travel Guide | Ischia Travel Guide | Capri Travel Guide | Sorrento Travel Guide | Amalfi Travel Guide | More Italy Travel guides ... 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Venice Hotels | Cortina Hotels | Asolo Hotels | Hotel Golden Rome | Hotel San Niccolò - Chianti | Hotel Il Granduca Florence | Venice Travel Guide | Venice Booking Center | Venice Hotels Servizi per le aziende - Netplan Travel Network Links A1 A2 B1 C1 D1 E1 F1 G1 H1 H2 I1 I2 J1 K1 L1 M1 N1 O1 P1 Q1 R1 S1 T1 U1 V1 W1 X1 Y1 Z1 AA1 AB1 AC1 AD1 AE1 AF1 AG1 AH1 AI1 AJ1 AK1 AL1 AM1 AN1 AN2 AO1 AP1 AQ1 AR1 AS1 AT1 AU1 AV1 AW1 AX1 AY1 AZ1 BA1 BB1 Italy Travel Guide © 2004 Fatto da: Netplan

Central America Travel |

Central America - Travel Stories from Around the World - BootsnAll.com Home | Ask an Insider | Members Forum Plane Tickets | Youth Hostels | RTW Guide About Us | Advertising | Search | RSS | Staff First Time Visitor? Travel Stories Africa - Travel Stories from Africa Asia - Travel Stories from Asia Middle East - Travel Stories from the Middle East Europe - Travel Stories from Europe North America - Travel Stories from North America Central America - Travel Stories from Central America South America - Travel Stories from South America Pacific - Travel Stories from the Pacific and Australasia Travelogues - Travelogues from around the world Central American Travel Stories Below you will find stories written by travellers on their experiences in Central America. If you would like to submit your own stories for this region, click here . Belize | Costa Rica | Dominican Republic | El Salvador | Guatemala | Honduras | Jamaica | Nicaragua | Panama | Puerto Rico Belize Relax, Mon Matt Scott quickly adapts to the easy-going pace of Caye Caulker - both above and below the water. Diving Adventure in Belize Seasickness, wild waves and an overflowing toilet weren't going to keep Kristin Piljay from diving in Belize's blue waters. PepperOni, Island Style A Washington state man sells off three pizza joints and stateside life to open shop in a bamboo-covered trailer in Belize. Belize & Tikal, Guatemala Justin Bryant tackles wildlife, forests, scary restaurants and rickety bars, but why worry, man? It's Belize. Dreadlocks & Voodoo Jack Simpson, Jr honeymoons in Belize where he experiences dark caves and voodoo rituals. No tigers though. Living the Life of Raleigh Recounting horror stories from the foreign bush is just part of the Raleigh International experience. Costa Rica Pura Vida en Costa Rica Whatever your taste, you can find it in Costa Rica. Lee Abbamonte promises that you will want to return time and again. The Legend of La Mona Did a half-woman half-monkey, with a hysterical laugh, prey on Andrew Black's sanity? Costa Rican Beach Bum Buddha People can touch your life, even if you know them only for a short while. Shawn Cooley reflects on the people that touch the life of a traveler. Seven Days in Costa Rica Traversing through the rainforests next to an active volcano, David Alan Robinson makes the most of his seven days in Costa Rica. Don't Miss the Boat Costa Rica is considered one of the most ecologically abundant areas in the hemisphere, writes Judy Wolf. It has distractions and attractions galore - beaches, surfing, nesting sea turtles, cloud forests, active volcanoes, rivers and more. La Catarata Rebecca Bowe and her friends put their clothes back on and made their way back up the path feeling exhausted and full of wonder. Touch the Wire After 2 years of highs and lows Brandon Dane's hand got pried off the high-voltage line of life. He can't wait to clutch on again. La Fortuna Fiesta A spring break with a difference, Catharine Wells traveled to Costa Rica to see Volcan Arenal. Instead she arrived in time for a local festival. Tico's Rampage (or, The Shortcut) The story of Craig Guillot's right leg dashes on a mad horse through Costa Rica. Los Chiles , Costa Rica Many different ways to travel on this river, in varying degrees of comfort. Puntarenas , Costa Rica Taking the bus from Puntarenas to Nicaragua and back. Dominican Republic The Missing Piece of the Puzzle The hidden mountain village of Los Quemados is poor, but those who come to know it see the beauty of the countryside and its people. El Salvador Biting the Bullet William Koplitz went to El Salvador to go surfing and was shot by thieves after being in the country for 24 hours. La Union , El Salvador Boat problems lead to a refreshing break on the island of Conchaquita. Guatemala Don't Worry, It's Straight Ahead, and Other Guatemalan Fibs NEW! Children run from her shrieking, she has to catch a ride on a dump drunk and Claire MacDonell still has another week in the mountains of Guatemala. I Will Survive: Early Morning in the Guatemalan Jungle with a Drag Queen The temples of Tikal are cause for awe and wonder. But Diana Reed found herself wondering about one of her fellow visitors to the ancient ruins. The Idiot's Guide to Good Transport in Guatemala Diana Espirito Santo navigates the scary, but rewarding, world of Guatemalan transportation. The Complete Rules of the Road for Driving in Guatemala Ken McCormick provides a basic set of rules for surviving (or not) Guatemala's notorious highways. Deconstructing Travels To Tikal Amongst the huge stone temples at Tikal, Shawn Cooley waxes philosophical. Fear (but no loathing) in Guatemala Explosions ripped Shannan Murphy out of an exhausted sleep. But she learned she had nothing to fear, but fear itself. Avoid being Ripped-off in Guatemala Maury Englander follows up his story of being robbed in Guatemala City with some tips to help you avoid the same fate. A Guatemalan (Sad) Story Maury Englander was distracted for just a second, but that's all it took for thieves to end his holiday in Guatemala. The First Great Maya City: El Mirador Don Parkinson's 20 mile hike through the jungle was rewarded the view from El Mirador, the largest of the ancient Mayan cities. ER in Guatemala The nightly turtle races were all the excitement the village of Monterrico was supposed to offer. Laurie Magree found a bit more than that after helping to save two locals attacked by a machete-wielding drunk. Volcano Pacaya Hiking a live volcano should be adventure enough, but throw in a few bandits and it's downright scary. Antigua: Home Sweet Home Semana Santa is one week when Antigua gets even more international visitors than usual. Through the Looking Glass... How I was rescued from the jungle by a Belizian fisherman, his son, and a dog named Red. Indigenous Markets in Guatemala Experience the fun of a local market, but don't forget to arrive early! Ascent to Pacaya Hike to the top of a live volcano in Guatemala. "Mundo Olmeca"...in Guatemala?! Guatemala is famous for being the heart of "Mundo Maya". So what's this about "Mundo Olmeca"? I am not as young as I used to be... Local Guat buses can take you to beautiful places, but you've gotta have the stomach for it. Rio Dulce , Guatemala The Hotel Backpackers is a great way to meet other travellers in Rio Dulce. Honduras Roatan: a Caribbean Island in Transition NEW! David Alan Robinson snoops around Roatan and witnesses another Caribbean island that is poised for development. A Bridge in The Bay Islands The Great Barrier Reef and the Red Sea pale in comparison to the quality of the Bay Islands of Roatan. Time may be running out, writes Lee Abbamonte, to see this unspoiled area. Don't wait. Bloody Football Today's football heroes are worshipped, but in an ancient time, they worshipped the gods with human sacrifice. Escape from Roatan Leaving Roatan, Honduras felt more like an escape than a departure for Diana Espirito Santo. Island Time Island Time - undetermined quantity of time just long enough to infuriate, confuse and befuddle a sick-stomached mainlander, writes Thomas Jones. Like a Fish to Air Roatan is reknown for diving, but it also forces Kristina Johnson to confront her fears. Utila - Hangover in Paradise A tequila hangover doesn't stop Malcolm Blakey from spending 2 weeks diving and eating on the island of Utila. Dead Pirates and Frozen Fish Battling a fever in Honduras, Christine Michaud uses the only thing at her disposal to cool down: a frozen fish. Jamaica Jammin' in Jamaica Shirley Camia witnessed both the beauty and tragedy of Jamaica's tourism and its people. Broken Space & Time in Jamaica It was just before turning back that the strangest series of events unfolded for Ajay Nityananda and his friend. Nicaragua Hippocrates Laughs Shawna Kenney goes to Central America to cure her friend's loneliness and finds another world in the process. Panama Counting the Hours on Contadora NEW! Troy White visited the only nude beach in Central America, called 'Swedish Girls Beach.' The problem was: there were no Swedish girls, just he and his friends. Casco Viejo NEW! Mike Heavers is awed by resilient, sensual, enticing Casco Vieja - epitomized by the daily struggle against poverty by its people. La Casa Grande What Chris Lele's search from the website blurb on Casa Grande led him to expect and what he found was different, even shocking. Puerto Rico A Tropical Independence Day: Giant Ferns, Aliens and City Folks Regardless of the fact that it sits on one of the Bermuda Trangle's corners, Elda P. Acevedo found El Yunque to be an extremely beautiful and possibly enchanted place. 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European Vacation There's a

Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis - The Region - European Vacation (December 2003) I'm at: Home > Publications > The Region > December 2003 > Article Publications Expand All Collapse All The Region Index by Issue Interviews President's Columns fedgazette Index by Issue Topics Index Annual Report Quarterly Review Community Dividend Banking and Policy Studies Articles Toolbox ( advanced search ) December 2003 European Vacation There's a simple reason Americans work longer hours than Europeans, says economist Ed Prescott. And it isn't what you think Douglas Clement Editor It's no secret that Europeans work less than Americans do. Every Labor Day the media tell us that Europeans have just enjoyed weeks of summer vacation while Americans have been toiling away. These stories often depict Americans as hard-working drones who revere material possessions above all else. Europeans meanwhile bask in the good life of long lunches and months at the beach. There is some truth to the portrayal, at least in terms of hours worked. The International Labor Organization reports that the average American worked 1,815 hours in 2002, well above the comparable figures for France (1,545) and Germany (1,444), for example. (The average South Korean, on the other hand, worked over 2,400 hours.) But if it's widely acknowledged that Americans work more hours than Europeans, it remains a puzzle quite why there's such a large difference. With similar economies and social structures—at least relative to the rest of the world—it would seem that labor patterns should also be alike. Social scientists have been hard-pressed to explain the disparity. Most accounts focus on cultural explanations. The most popular is the notion that Europeans have a fuller appreciation of la dolce vita —the sweet life—the Italian version of the idea that life is to be enjoyed, not endured. Work is a means to an end, not an end in itself. The idea of cultural and religious influences on economic activity isn't new. German sociologist Max Weber wrote The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism nearly a century ago, attributing the rise of capitalist economies to the “Protestant work ethic.” It was an immensely persuasive theory in its time, and derivative explanations have held great sway ever since. “Why do Europeans and Americans differ so much in their attitude toward work and leisure? I can think of two reasons,” opines a recent Time magazine essay. “Broadly speaking, Americans value stuff—SUVs, 7,000-sq.-ft. houses—more than they value time, while for Europeans it's the opposite. Second, ... in the puritanical version of Christianity that has always appealed to Americans, religion comes packaged with the stern message that hard work is good for the soul. Modern Europe has avoided so melancholy a lesson.” “It all comes down to what people feel is important and how they feel about their lives,” argues a September 2003 U.S. News & World Report editorial. “We value more money and more stuff; they value more leisure time. ... We are proud of being busy—it is a virtue; being idle is perceived as a vice.” Economic explanations Economists have always been suspect of such cultural explanations. Standard economic theory assumes that people's preferences are, on average, homogeneous, and that choices depend largely on economic factors. Still, while economists agree that dollars and cents lie behind the work pattern differential, there is little harmony among them as to the right economic explanation. Some economists say work regulations keep Europeans from working longer hours and point favorably to recent European reforms on vacation time. Others argue that greater inequality in the United States motivates workers to try harder to get ahead. Most of these explanations come from the perspective of labor economics and its core belief that social structures and institutions such as unions are the major determinants of labor patterns. But in a recent series of papers and lectures, Edward C. Prescott, senior monetary adviser to the Minneapolis Fed and economist at Arizona State University, looks at the labor supply question through the prism of the growth model—a different perspective altogether—and provides a convincing and remarkably straightforward explanation for the dramatic differences in hours worked. It is an explanation that has far-reaching implications for policymakers—and for anyone else who's ever received a paycheck. According to Prescott, the reason for these large differences in labor supply is not culture. “French, Japanese, and U.S. workers all have similar preferences,” he writes. “The French are not better at enjoying leisure. The Japanese are not compulsive savers.” The reason for the wide range in working hours is, in a word, taxes. Europeans supply less labor because there's a much larger wedge in most European countries between what a worker is paid and what that worker actually gets to keep after taxes are taken out. This tax wedge, argues Prescott, distorts the trade-off people make between consumption and leisure by making consumption more expensive. And since people work, ultimately, to earn money to pay for consumption goods, they'll supply less labor if consumption goods become relatively more expensive. The cheaper alternative: leisure. Hello, Riviera. If the concept seems straightforward, its evolution was anything but. Like most ideas that seem obvious in retrospect, the awareness that taxes distort labor markets dramatically and account for major international differences in work patterns came about indirectly and as a revelation to those who happened upon it. The discovery Prescott's discovery about the role of taxes in labor supply variation began, simply enough, in his classroom at the University of Minnesota, where he taught from 1980 to 2003. “I was making up exercises for my students,” he recalled in a recent interview. “I said, 'use this nice little growth model.'” The “nice little model” he presented to his students is the workhorse of modern macroeconomics; it says, mathematically, that a nation's total output (or gross domestic product, GDP) is dependent on three sources: labor, capital and the efficiency (or productivity) with which it merges them to create economic value. The other key part of this standard theory is, in the jargon of economics, a utility function: a formula representing the notion that households try to maximize their happiness by finding the best possible combination of leisure and consumption, given their resources. Prescott wanted his students to become familiar with this model by looking at how it performed in different nations over time, and how key variables—capital endowments, productivity, labor supply—could account for differences among nations in per capita GDP. “I wanted to try to get across the basic ideas and the importance of productivity,” said Prescott. “And then I thought, let's put a few taxes in.” The intuition was far more significant than Prescott suspected, but that became clear only after looking at the relative contributions of capital, productivity and labor. The data, compiled by the United Nations and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, showed that in the mid-1990s among developed countries—the United States, much of Europe and Japan—relative levels of capital differ little and explain just a small portion of the variation in per capita GDP (see adjacent table). “The capital factor is not an important factor in accounting for differences in incomes across the OECD countries,” writes Prescott in his 2002 Richard T. Ely Lecture to the American Economic Association. “[It] contributes at most 8 percent to the differences in income between any of these countries.” Capital, Labor, Productivity and GDP 1993-96 Country Capital/ Output Ratio (1990) Hours worked per Week per Person 15-64 Productivity: GDP per hour Worked; US=100 GDP per Person 15-64; US=100 Germany 2.7 19.3 99 74 France 2.2 17.5 110 74 Italy 2.6 16.5 90 57 Canada na 22.9 89 79 United Kingdom 2.6 22.8 76 67 Japan 2.5 27.0 74 78 United States 2.3 25.9 100 100 Source: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Research Department Staff Report 321 and Working Paper 618 . Productivity, on the other hand, is very important, at least for some national differences. Japan and the United States, for example, have similar levels of labor and capital, but per capita GDP in Japan is far below that in the United States because its productivity is less than three-quarters that of the United States. But what of European countries like France, Italy and Germany? Why are their levels of per capita GDP so much lower? All these nations have capital endowments comparable to the United States. Their productivity levels also are similar to U.S. rates, or in the case of France, even higher. The data suggest that the differences in wealth are due almost exclusively to the markedly lower number of hours worked in these European countries. Germany, for instance, had a slightly higher capital endowment than the United States and an equal level of productivity, but just 74 percent of the U.S. per capita GDP. The evident reason: Its workers supplied just over 19 hours of labor per week compared to nearly 26 hours a week per American worker. While many believe that cultural differences lead to fewer hours worked in Europe than in the United States, Prescott doubts it. After all, data from the early 1970s show that the French actually worked more hours per week than did Americans at that time. Has French culture changed radically over the last two decades? Probably not: They still like good wine, aged cheese and, inexplicably, Jerry Lewis. Prescott's hunch was that differences in marginal tax rates might explain the differences in labor supplied and thus account for differences in per capita GDP. Enter the tax wedge “What is important is the price of consumption relative to leisure,” Prescott writes in the lecture he gave in April 2003 as he accepted Northwestern University's prestigious Erwin Plein Nemmers Prize in Economics. “And it is determined by the consumption tax rate and the labor income tax rate.” (See the lecture, “ Why Do Americans Work So Much More Than Europeans? ”) By introducing these taxes into the growth model, and making standard microeconomic assumptions, Prescott derived what he calls “the key equilibrium relation.” 1 It's a mathematical formula for labor supply that says workers will supply labor dependent on, among other things, their preference for consumption now over consumption later (spend or save?), their preference for leisure relative to consumption (play or work?) and the effective tax rate. Holding the first two variables fixed and looking empirically at different national tax rates enables Prescott to see if tax differences can account, fully or partially, for variations in labor hours supplied. Estimating the effective tax rates in these countries was, in itself, a major accounting exercise. Consumption taxes include value-added taxes, sales taxes, excise taxes and property taxes. Labor is subject to both income taxes and Social Security taxes. For each nation under consideration, Prescott and his students crunched the numbers, determined a tax rate, plugged it into the formula along with fixed estimates of the other variables, and derived predictions of labor hours supplied per week per worker. How good were the predictions? Dead-on for Germany and the United Kingdom, a bit low for Canada and the United States, and a bit high for the other countries (see table below). Given measurement inaccuracies, the rough nature of the tax-rate estimates and the difficulty of international comparisons, writes Prescott, the model's predictions were “surprisingly close to the actual.” Tax Rates and Labor Supply 1993-96 Country Tax Rate (percent) Actual Hours Worked per Week per Person 15-64 Predicted Hours Worked per Week per Person 15-64 Difference (Predicted Minus Actual) Germany 59 19.3 19.5 0.2 France 59 17.5 19.5 2.0 Italy 64 16.5 18.8 2.3 Canada 52 22.9 21.3 -1.6 United Kingdom 44 22.8 22.8 0.0 Japan 37 27.0 29.0 2.0 United States 40 25.9 24.6 -1.3 Source: “ Why Do Americans Work So Much More Than Europeans ?” Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Research Department Staff Report 321. Here, notes Prescott, “the important observation is that the low labor supplies in Germany, France and Italy are due to high tax rates. In these countries if someone works more and produces 100 additional euros of output, that individual gets to consume only 40 euros of additional consumption and pays directly or indirectly 60 euros in taxes.” Put in such stark terms, it seems obvious that many Europeans might opt to work less, while Americans and Japanese, taxed more lightly, would be keen to put in extra hours. Confirmation and implications Prescott found further confirmation for his hypothesis when he looked at tax rates and labor supply in the early 1970s (see table below). While his model's predictions of labor hours supplied diverge from the actual in several cases—Italy and Japan, in particular—Prescott observes that “when European and U.S. tax rates were comparable, European and U.S. labor supplies were roughly equal.” Tax Rates and Labor Supply 1970-74 Country Tax Rate (percent) Actual Hours Worked per Week per Person 15-64 Predicted Hours Worked per Week per Person 15-64 Difference (Predicted Minus Actual) Germany 52 24.6 24.6 0.0 France 49 24.4 25.4 1.0 Italy 41 19.2 28.3 9.1 Canada 44 22.2 25.6 3.4 United Kingdom 45 25.9 24.0 -1.9 Japan 25 29.8 35.8 6.0 United States 40 23.5 26.4 2.9 Source: “ Why Do Americans Work So Much More Than Europeans ?” Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Research Department Staff Report 321. As for the outliers, Italy and Japan, Prescott suggests that other factors may be significant. In Italy, cartels may have played a role in depressing labor supply below its predicted value. In Japan, significant measurement errors in actual hours worked could account for the overly high prediction by the model. And what seems another anomaly is very likely an indirect confirmation of the importance of marginal tax rates on labor supply, according to Prescott. In the United States, actual hours worked per person increased by 10 percent from the 1970s to the 1990s, though the marginal tax rate remained at 40 percent. Prescott argues that U.S. tax reforms in the 1980s changed the effective marginal tax faced by married couples—dropping the rate in half for the second earner's income—even though it remained nominally at 40 percent. “In the 1993-96 [period],” he writes, “the marginal income tax on the labor income associated with switching between a one-earner and a two-earner household is only 20 percent, not 40 percent.” The issue warrants more attention, he says, and indeed, his colleagues Larry Jones, Rodolfo Manuelli and Ellen McGrattan have recently released a paper on this exact question. (See “ Wives at Work .”) On the whole, Prescott states, the results show that “people are remarkably similar across countries” and not only for these relatively prosperous and homogeneous nations, but for Chile, Mexico and Argentina, as well, where other economists have found similar relationships. “Apparently, idiosyncratic preference differences average out and result in the [representative] household having almost identical preferences across countries.” The policy implications are enormous for high-tax countries. If France were to lower its effective tax rate from 60 percent to 40 percent, estimates Prescott, its people would work more (taking 6.6 percent less leisure) and—remember their high productivity?—would generate considerably more output. Tax revenues wouldn't diminish, because the 40 percent rate would be levied on a higher base. And overall French “welfare gains,” as economists put it, would increase nearly 20 percent. In the United States, reducing marginal tax rates would have a more modest impact, according to the model: A 10 percent rate reduction would produce a 7 percent welfare gain. But even in the United States, Prescott's findings have huge implications for the viability of the Social Security system. (See “ Shrinking a deadweight loss .”) Foreign affairs In recent months, Prescott has traveled widely, presenting his findings not only to American audiences but to economists and policymakers in London, Berlin, Toulouse, Tokyo and elsewhere overseas. And in fact, says Prescott, Europeans tend to be more receptive than Americans. “The economists there understand that there is a problem,” he said after returning from France in mid-September. “I got some excellent suggestions when I presented the paper, the best so far.” But at all venues, he observes, the common denominator is surprise. Prescott is the first to admit that he, too, thought the results were startling, unexpected. “I find it remarkable that virtually all of the large difference in labor supply between France and the United States is due to differences in tax systems,” he writes in his Ely lecture. “I expected institutional constraints on the operation of labor markets and the nature of the unemployment benefit system to be more important.” Moreover, he concedes that cultural explanations might carry the day in a few settings. “Scandinavians seem to be a little bit different,” he said recently, referring to research by Richard Rogerson, an economist at Arizona State University. “My theory is when one of those Swedes looks at you when you're not working, it's pretty intimidating.” More seriously, he allows that in small, homogeneous cultures, social pressures can be quite strong. But even in large, heterogeneous nations, tax wedges don't always tell the whole story, according to Prescott. “Taxes are not the only reason that the labor factors differ,” says Prescott's Ely lecture. Unemployment benefits and housing subsidies—not taxes—distorted labor mobility in the United Kingdom between the first and second World Wars, contributing significantly to that country's interwar depression. New Deal policies supporting cartels in America's heavy industries distorted wages and employment in the last half of the 1930s, contributing to the depth and duration of the Great Depression in the United States. Similarly, cartels in 1970s Italy may have suppressed employment there. Prescott relies on work by University of California, Los Angeles economists Harold Cole and Lee Ohanian in making these conjectures. Still, while taxes aren't the all-powerful explanatory factor for all nations and eras, Prescott contends that in major developed countries in the time period under consideration, the labor supply impact of tax wedges is a powerful and undeniable fact. Other academics As befits the work of any prominent scholar, Prescott's theory has attracted close academic scrutiny—beyond the initial reaction of surprise—from both adherents and critics. In one recent paper, Peter Lindert, an economist at the University of California, Davis, refers to Prescott's study as dependent upon “a theoretical model heavily laden with assumptions. It is educated, intelligent, plausible fiction—but fiction nonetheless.” On the other hand (as Lindert points out) Prescott's model and findings are cited quite favorably by Nobel Laureate Robert Lucas in his 2003 presidential address to the American Economic Association. Lindert calls for empirical tests. Steven Davis at the University of Chicago Graduate School of Business and Magnus Henrekson of the Stockholm School of Economics oblige with a careful econometric analysis of the impact of labor income and consumption taxes on employment and work activity. In their study of rich countries in the mid-1990s, they find that a 12.8 percentage point difference in tax rates is associated with 122 fewer market work hours per adult per year and nearly a 5 percentage point decrease in employment—population ratios—an indirect affirmation of Prescott's theory. A very different perspective was presented earlier this year in a series of lectures by British economist Richard Layard, co-director of the Centre for Economic Performance at the London School of Economics. Layard takes issue with GDP itself as a satisfactory measure of human welfare—or utility, as Jeremy Bentham and subsequent economists have termed it—noting that “happiness has not increased, despite huge increases in living standards.” To summarize a lengthy argument, Layard's idea is that a tax wedge on labor income could actually increase utility by decreasing a sort of pollution: overwork brought on by the inherent human desire to do better than our peers, regardless of our absolute level of income. Keeping up with the Joneses, in other words, leads to overwork, ill health and unhappiness—rivalry distorts the leisure/labor decision. Appropriate public policy should diminish this pollution by taxing it. “In an efficient economy,” Layard writes, “there will be substantial levels of corrective taxation ... 60 percent would not seem inappropriate, and that is in fact the typical level of marginal taxation in Europe—if you allow for direct and indirect taxes.” Prescott responds Prescott's reactions to these ideas vary widely. Sitting in his seventh-floor office at the Minneapolis Fed, he reads through the first pages of Lindert's paper, then drops it on his desk. “It doesn't seem to be coherent,” he says. Davis and Henrekson's study, on the other hand, intrigues him. That might seem predictable given its broad support of Prescott's findings, but Davis and Henrekson employ a technique Prescott generally scorns: statistical regression. “Progress, don't regress,” he says with a smile, quoting the slogan featured prominently on his Internet home page. Regardless of their method, Prescott is drawn to the findings and has invited Davis to Minneapolis to get a closer look at their work. But Prescott's response to Layard's argument—more complete and nuanced—conveys a sense of Prescott himself. He begins by summarizing Layard's case in a phrase: “I'm happy if I have a lot more income—than you,” he says, grinning and quite aware that he does. As to the overwork such rivalry might cause, “that just says there's a consumption externality.” Then he conveys the concept with a story. “I always tried to create a positive externality in Pittsburgh for my neighbors who had these beautiful lawns,” he jokes of his grad school days at Carnegie Mellon University. “By my having a messy lawn, their lawns looked so much better. I mowed it, but I didn't do much else with my lawn. And it gave me utility to see them happier.” He tells the story with a verbal wink, acknowledging silently that his Pittsburgh yard care externality may well have been less than zero. The conspiratorial smile changes to professorial zeal as he begins to dissect Layard's reasoning: “Suppose everybody cares about relative consumption as well as own consumption. You work out the equilibrium, it's not Pareto optimal. Let's deal with the case where everybody enters symmetrically. So it's simple to make the ordering. Well, you can make everybody better off by just putting a tax on consumption so that they work less. That's a very standard model. Now what would be the empirical evidence for and against that?” In under five minutes, Prescott has crystallized an argument, communicated it to a visitor in plain language and personal anecdote, then converted it to the idiom of economics and laid out steps for its confirmation or refutation. It's vintage Prescott: analytically brilliant, unexpectedly funny and several beats ahead of everyone else. That last bit is the essence of a conversation with the economist. When you ask him a question, it sometimes seems that his reply is off-topic; then it dawns on you that Ed Prescott is answering the question you should have asked. A pattern of surprise Prescott's willingness to entertain alternatives, to listen to critics, to incorporate the unexpected is deeply characteristic of his work. That flexibility is, in fact, the paradoxical outcome of a rigid research discipline. In setting model parameters, for instance, or reporting research results, “the investigator has no degrees of freedom,” he says. “You have to tie your hands and if there's a deviation from your predictions, you report it. You can speculate on why, but you've got to be totally honest.” Intellectual honesty also means allowing findings to modify, even subvert initial hypotheses. It happens frequently, says Prescott. Much of the work for which he's best known—theories on time inconsistency, real business cycles, the equity premium and growth theory—has been developed in an ongoing process of research and revelation. “When I work out the implications, I'm quite often surprised: The findings change my views quite dramatically,” he says. “When I did the real business cycles work with Finn Kydland, I was certain that monetary shocks were the reason the economy fluctuated with the business cycles. Our findings were just the opposite. When I did some work with Rajnish Mehra on the equity premium puzzle, I was certain that the reason for the high historical difference in the return on equity relative to debt was just a premium for bearing aggregate, nondiversifiable risk. We found it wasn't.” For time inconsistency and the impact of taxes on labor supply, as well, surprise has been an intrinsic part of the process. Future direction As striking as his labor supply findings are—and though many aspects of it remain unresolved—Prescott senses that the big theoretical questions in economic growth lie elsewhere, and he is now turning his attention to them. “I think I've had my say on labor supply,” he concludes. In his Ely lecture, he lays out three sources of economic growth: capital, labor and productivity. The first two are important in understanding why some nations remain poor while others prosper, but the central question, contends Prescott, is what determines productivity? “Given productivity, our macro models are great,” he says. “But we treat it as exogenous. We've got to have a better understanding of mapping between policies and productivity.” In other words, what can governments do to enhance productivity? Prescott's main candidates are efficient financial markets, competition among producers and trading clubs. And currently, the last is his major focus. “What is a trading club?” he asks rhetorically. “Well, first, free movement of goods between the member states. But it's much, much more than that. ...” Prescott continues at length, with a discourse ranging from Toyota factories in Wales to trade among the U.S. states in the 19th century. He speaks quickly, and as he does there is a sense that each research question he asks leads him to a dozen more, each more interesting than the last. He will travel soon to Warsaw and then Bogotá to explore these ideas with other economists and policymakers. “It's going to be fascinating to see what's happening in Poland,” he remarks. In Colombia, “the president is trying to do some good things there, and we have to go down and help out.” He's not a policymaker himself. “I leave that to other people,” he says. “I'm no good at it. My comparative advantage is working out implications of theory.” And in so doing, it seems there is just one constraint: Even for Ed Prescott, a scholar who understands labor supply dynamics as well as anyone on earth, there are only 24 hours in a day. “Time,” observes the economist, “is the most valuable resource.” 1 The two assumptions: (1) that people decide between leisure and consumption based on their relative prices, at the margin, and (2) that in a competitive market, wages are equal to their marginal product of labor. The “key equilibrium relation” also depends on the share of a nation's output due to capital. Top of document Advanced Search Glossary See also: Shrinking a deadweight loss

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