Vacation Rentals Villas, Condos,

Vacation Rental of Villas and Apartments. Holiday in France,Spain,Florida,Italy Etc. Late Deals, Special Offers. Reference Password Members 1 st Class Vacation Rentals Villas, Condos, Cabins and Apartments for Rental 37,850,370 visitors since opening on 24 May 1999 WANTED - Click here to ADD your own request. OWNERS - Add Your Property. Click here to add us to your favorites. Find your property from one of the regional lists below, or using the map, or one of the special lists such as golf, or browse the image gallery, or use the search list above to narrow your search by property type beds etc. or use our keyword search for special needs such as surfing, water skiing etc. Classified Adverts If you can't find what you want then add your details to our wanted list. This will get mailed to interested property owners on other sites as well as this one. Rental Properties Search for a Property Image Gallery of properties by Country Special late deals. Selected Rental Listings Example Listing using all the site features Latest Rentals Added Information Privacy Statement Terms and Conditions Miscellaneous "Flights from the UK." Tell a friend who might be interested. Click here for Home Exchanges . Select from the map for properties in that area If you know the number of the property you want to look at enter it and click on the button. Enter the property number here. Listings of properties by area. Europe(1215) Austria(2) Belgium(1) Bulgaria(21) Croatia(28) Cyprus(23) Denmark(2) Estonia(1) Finland(2) France(130) Aquitaine(16) Auvergne Limousin(1) Brittany(8) Corsica(1) Languedoc Roussillon(14) Loire Valley(4) Midi Pyrenees(8) Normandy(9) Paris-Ile de France(12) Poitou-Charentes(3) Provence-Cote d`Azur(53) Western Loire(1) Greece(86) Iceland(1) Ireland(6) Israel(7) Italy(286) Abruzzo(1) Calabria(2) Campania(17) Emilia Romagna(5) Friuli Venezia Giulia(1) Lazio(37) Liguria(14) Lombardy(15) Marche(2) Puglia(7) Sardinia(34) Sicily(56) Tuscany(57) Umbria(26) Val d`Aosta(1) Veneto (Venetia)(10) Malta(6) Netherlands(13) Norway(3) Poland(18) Portugal(49) Romania(2) Russian Federation(3) Spain(373) Andalucia(117) Asturias(1) Balearics(25) Basque Country(1) Canaries(32) Catalunya(39) Galicia(3) Madrid and Central Spain(3) Murcia(36) Valencia(116) Sweden(5) Switzerland(5) Turkey(104) United Kingdom(38) London(9) Midlands(2) North(4) Northern Ireland(3) Scotland(5) South West(7) SouthEast(8) Canada(41) Alberta(4) British Columbia(10) Northwest Territories(1) Nova Scotia(2) Ontario(5) Quebec(19) United States(334) Alabama(2) Arizona(3) California(39) Colorado(5) Connecticut(1) Florida(202) Central Florida(119) East Coast(29) Florida Keys(6) Gulf Coast(41) Panhandle(7) Georgia(2) Hawaii(15) Idaho(1) Indiana(1) Louisiana(1) Maryland(2) Massachusetts(5) Michigan(2) Minnesota(1) Montana(2) Nevada(1) New Jersey(2) New York(9) North Carolina(2) Oregon(2) Pennsylvania(3) South Carolina(12) Tennessee(3) Texas(2) Utah(2) Vermont(6) Washington(6) Africa(43) Egypt(9) Kenya(3) Mauritius(9) Morocco(3) South Africa(16) Tanzania and Zanzibar(1) Tunisia(2) Asia(50) China(4) India(10) Indonesia(4) Philippines(1) Saudi Arabia(1) Sri Lanka(5) Thailand(20) United Arab Emirates(5) Australasia(34) Fiji(3) New South Wales,ACT(8) New Zealand(8) Queensland(7) Victoria(2) Western Australia(6) Caribbean and Atlantic Islands(68) Anguilla(1) Antigua and Barbuda(7) Aruba(2) Bahamas(7) Barbados(9) Cayman Islands(2) Cuba(3) Dominican Republic(12) Jamaica(6) Puerto Rico (US)(2) Saint Lucia(1) St Maarten and St Martin(1) St.Kitts Nevis Anguilla(3) St.Vincent and Grenadines(1) Trinidad and Tobago(4) Virgin Islands(7) Central America(30) Belize(1) Costa Rica(5) Honduras(2) Mexico(22) South America(26) Argentina(4) Brazil(14) Peru(4) Venezuela(4) General Very competitive on price. From 42 dollars/ 32 Euros/ 24 pounds for rentals with extended terms for new adverts. Up to eight photographs of each property for exchange or rental. Your own page customised with keywords to your property location. Map links to help show features and facilities in your area. (Best for US/Europe/Canada properties). You can add links to your own home page (if you have one) and other sites which might be useful. Option of adding wide panoramic images for greater detail and views. A full availability calendar which you can link to from other sites. A special offers and last minute deals page. Worth the subscription for that alone. And if you decide to do holiday exchanges with your property. Multiple adverts get from 20% to 50% discounts. Email notification of new rental requests which meet your requirements. Registered Address: 45 Montpelier Road, Brighton, UK, BN1 3BA. Home Page , Add Property , Search , Admin Links Vacation rentals. TipTopVillas offers villa rentals throughout the world, direct from theowner.

London vacations, custom-made for

European Travel, London Vacation Packages, Dublin Vacations, Britain and Ireland Tour Packages Book Online or call (800) 682-3333 Europe Asia Americas Caribbean Mediterranean Pacific Cruises Home Hotels Find a Vacation Specials Contact Us Italy & Sicily Spain & Portugal Britain & Ireland France Belgium & Holland Central Europe Scandinavia Greece River Cruises China & Japan Southeast Asia Thailand India South America Brazil Peru Costa Rica Bahamas Caribbean & Mexico Bahamas Cancun Riviera Maya Punta Cana Jamaica Greece & Turkey Israel Egypt Morocco Australia & New Zealand Tahiti China & Japan Southeast Asia Sea Cruises River Cruises Britain & Ireland Vacations : Explore London and Dublin with Gate 1 Travel. We offer Ireland and London vacations, custom-made for your time, family and vacation budget. Experience Europe with luxury vacation packages. Trust your European vacation with Gate1Travel, your Western Europe specialist. Call Gate 1 Travel today or click on one of the tour packages or vacations below for more information. Prices below include airline fuel surcharges but do not include airport taxes, fees and September 11th Security Fee which vary between $50 and $130 per person. Multicity Programs Ireland Escorted Tours European Cruises London and Dublin Vacation Packages Vacation in London and Dublin with these independent vacation packages including flight. London Vacations 5 Days from $479 Thursday departures: Nov '05 - Mar '06 6 Days First Class London from $529 Wednesday-Thursday departures: Nov '05 - Mar '06 6 Days from $529 President's Day departures: Feb 15 6 Days from $539 Valentine's Day departures: Feb 11 6 Days from $559 Tuesday-Thursday departures: Nov '05 - Mar '06 5 Days from $629 Thursday departures: Apr - Oct '06 Dublin Vacations 6 Days from $749 Wednesday departures: Nov '05 - Mar '06 6 Days from $749 Wednesday departures: Apr '06 - Oct '06 Multi-city London and European Vacations Tour Europe with these independent vacations featuring budget flight, hotel and train. 8 Day London & Amsterdam Wednesday departures: Apr - Oct '06 8 Day London & Amsterdam Daily departures: Nov '05 - Mar '06 8 Day London & Dublin Monday departures: Apr - Oct '06 8 Day London & Dublin Saturday departures: Nov '05 - Mar '06 8 Day London & Paris Monday departures: Nov '05 - Mar '06 8 Day London & Paris Monday departures: Apr - Oct '06 8 Day London & Rome Wednesday departures: Nov '05 - Mar '06 8 Day London & Rome Wednesday departures: Apr - Oct '06 9 Day London, Paris & Amsterdam Monday & Wednesday departures: Nov '05 - Mar '06 9 Day London, Paris & Amsterdam Saturday departures: Apr - Oct '06 9 Day London, Paris & Rome Friday departures: Nov '05 - Mar '06 9 Day London, Paris & Rome Friday Departures: Apr - Oct '06 Ireland Escorted Tours Tour Ireland with these escorted tour packages including a flight. 7 Day Ireland Dublin, Waterford, Killarney, Limerick European Cruises 16 Day Taste of Europe Departing: July 30, 2006 - Ship: ms Prinsendam HOT DEALS: discount prices for Britain and Ireland Tours 5 Day Weekend in London from $479 Holiday Specials President's Day Spring Specials Mother's Day Specials Memorial Day Specials Summer Specials Labor Day Specials Thanksgiving Specials Christmas Markets New Year Specials -- Valentine's Day President's Day February Winter Break Rio Carnival March Spring Break Easter Vacation Specials Travel Extras Sightseeing & Transfers Browse & Book Hotel Nights Protect your investment: Buy travel insurance Travel Tips & Tools Britain & Ireland Travel Tips Terms & Conditions Central London Transfers Passports & Visas The Comforts You Expect Map of Western Europe FAQ Email This Page to a Friend © 2005 Gate 1 Travel Home | About Us | Travel Agent | Free Brochure | Help | Site Map | (800) 682-3333 Read our privacy policy . Contact Us . This site can be best viewed using Internet Explorer 4.0, or higher. The browser software can be downloaded, free of charge, from the Microsoft website at http://www.microsoft.com . All external sites will open in a new browser. Gate1travel.com does not endorse external sites.

air travel and how

"Air rage is caused by oxygen deprivation."--Diana Fairechild HOME | FREE | FAST | ABOUT | CONTACT | NEWSLETTER | RADIO | NONPROFIT | SEARCH EXPERT WITNESS | SPEAKING | CONSULTING | BOOKS | PRESS ROOM . AIR RAGE CAUSED BY OXYGEN DEPRIVATION By Diana Fairechild First Published by Reuters News Service in 7-98, then in the Jet Smart Newsletter on 12-28-98 "Diana Fairechild, who, having circled the planet more than a hundred times, is able to offer tips on everything from how to avoid blocked ears to how to get a freshly brewed cup of coffee." -GQ Magazine "Diana Fairechild is a natural born healer. She was put on Earth to help millions of people. I really truly feel that Diana's motivation is to educate us, the people who fly--who could die on airplanes." -Uri Geller, Psychic "Fairechild discusses all the hazards of air travel and how to protect yourself." -Andrew Weil, MD "Nobody should get on a plane without Jet Smarter. There is no other information out there on how to travel and protect your health at the same time. It's not available, I've checked. You must protect yourself... it's very serious. This book is indispensable. Don't travel without it." -Layna Berman ( radio ) "Fairechild's great sense of humor reduces anxiety. You become stronger by reading this book and able to protect yourself from the rigors of air travel." -George Hoffer, Frequent flyer "Jet Smarter is the Encyclopedia Britannica of air travel! Read it before you board an airplane -- then pack it in your carry-on. This book can save your health, maybe even your life! There are more dangers in flying than you ever dreamed of. It's all in Jet Smarter. The book is hard-hitting, in depth, comprehensive, full of solutions, entertaining, and often witty." -Arlene Ashe, reader "Diana Fairechild has been warning and advising frequent flyers about poor air quality in airplanes since her 1992 publication Jet Smart." -Frequent Flyer "The thing I enjoy only slightly less than a tooth extraction is flying... Fairechild, still perky after what amounts to 300 circumnavigations of the globe, said that the mostly non-lethal dangers of air travel amount to one of the great unexplored environmental health issues of the day...Considering how many of us this affects, this lone voice is well worth hearing." -John Bogert, Copley Newspapers "Diana Fairechild, a highly respected consumer advocate for the flying public, says there is 'no quick fix for all the symptoms of jetlag because of all the different causes -- shifts in time, alterations in magnetic fields, modifications in climate, and diversitites in cultures. Flying in commercial jets, we're deprived of air and humidity while exposed to recycled germs and chemicals, radiation, pesticides, and noise.'" -Ambassadair Travel Club "Fairechild has a bag of carry-on health tricks larger than fits in the overhead compartment, all included in her book, Jet Smarter." -American Bar Association Journal "Diana Fairechild, a former flight attendant who writes about and does consulting on the health risks of flying, says some frequent travelers often fail to connect the dots between their travels and chronic ailments." -Alina Tugend, The New York Times "Take the advice of Diana Fairechild." -Smart Money "Diana Fairechild is an aviation health and safety analyst." -Andrea Arceneau, CNN-TV "Diana Fairechild's book Jet Smart dropped a bomb in Washington and the Environmental Protection Agency and the Department of Transportation changed policy." -Ed Randegger, Environ "Thank you so much Diana Fairechild for coming forward and saying what needs to be said about the airline industry. You are a real hero." -thepowerhour.com ALL AROUND THE WORLD, frequent flyers, territorial about armrests and fretful about footing, now secretly wonder if the person next to them is a business flyer or a berserk flyer! And they may have good reason to be apprehensive. Unruly behavior in the skies has been increasing at an astonishing rate in both numbers and levels of hostility. In well-publicized incidents, airline passengers have defecated on food carts, beaten up crew members, and even sexually assaulted their own seats! Here are some examples of "air rage." Passenger Mr. Finneran, a banker, was fined $50,000 by United Airlines after he assaulted an attendant and then defecated on a first-class food cart during a Buenos Aires-to-New York flight. Passenger Mr. Guzman-Hernandez removed his pants and then "simulated having sex with the back of his own seat." Passenger Mr. Misiak put his hands around the throat of a flight attendant and threatened her because she spilled a drink on him. A passenger named Ms. Pennix grabbed a flight attendant's finger and bent it backward. Pennix explained to authorities that she didn't like the way the flight attendant told her to put her tray and seat in an upright position before landing. Passenger Mrs. Levy grabbed a flight attendant by the arms and twisted her wrists. Levy was traveling with three children and explains that she lost her temper because her 20-month-old was crying, had wet pants, and there was no way to get to the bathroom. Passenger Mr. Okada from Japan "allegedly urinated on the seats" then punched another passenger who told him to stop. A group of drunken Irish tourists were apparently so unruly over the Atlantic that the crew enlisted the help of a wrestling team to restrain them. Airline crews have begun to take drastic measures which sometimes have disastrous consequences. In December 1998, an unruly passenger was aboard a Malov flight between Bangkok and Budapest. The crew and passengers tied the unruly man to his seat, then a doctor on board injected him with a tranquilizer. The passenger died--tied to his seat with airplane headset cords! Once the crew noticed that the unruly passenger had died, the plane made an unscheduled stop in Istanbul. Five witnesses (passengers) were detained by the Turkish police along with the doctor. After a 13-hour delay, the remaining 183 passengers winged away (and behaved themselves, in spite of their late arrivals and missed connections). An autopsy in Istanbul showed that the unruly passenger had died due to the mixture in his blood of the tranquilizer and some other drug or alcohol. WHO IS RESPONSIBLE? The airlines must accept the major portion of the blame. Here's why, numbered 1 through 5: 1) Airline management is not responding to the need for in-flight security. Crews should not be in the position to be bouncers and bodyguards. Every flight attendant I know has been the brunt of temperamental travelers. When I was exhausted myself at times, my lack of training in this area did not give me the skills to handle these passengers as well as I could have. 2) One more cause of air rage is certainly the in-flight cabin environment--a place that is high in toxic chemicals and allergens, and low in air pressure and oxygen. Vincent Mark, M.D., an environmental physician in Santa Cruz, supports my theory. "Curtailment of fresh air in airplanes can be causing deficient oxygen in the brains of passengers, and this often makes people act belligerent, even crazy," said Dr. Mark in a telephone interview, adding "I'm positive about this, and it can be proven with a simple blood test." Rage bubbles up at high altitude just like soft drinks fizz over at high altitudes. The link between air rage and poor air quality deserves a closer look. To start with, passenger unruliness began to rise some 20 years ago, coinciding with the cost-cutting practice of using recycled air instead of fresh air in commercial jets. 3) Still another culprit, high on the list of irritants for airline passengers, is cramped "sardine seating." Airline seats are now as small as seats on subway trains, and with many flights lasting longer, passengers feel they are packed like sardines in a can, or chickens in crowded cages. Is it any wonder they peck peevishly at those around them? The last time I flew, I was in an aisle seat in economy. The passenger next to me was too large to fit in his seat, and his touching me all through the flight made me very uncomfortable. On the other side, everyone who passed, even the carts, bumped into me. Airline executives (who travel in first class) have, to date, only pointed to excess luggage as the cause for surly passenger behavior. In testimony before Congress, airline management blamed air rage on the number and size of bags passengers bring on the plane. Upon closer examination, it appears the airlines themselves have contributed to the luggage problem by removing coat closets, leaving little room for garment bags or heavy outer clothing. And with eight percent of all airline baggage lost or stolen , travelers are increasingly reluctant to check their luggage. 4) The difference between passenger expectations for comfort and service and the reality of what awaits them on board, especially in coach class, is no doubt another contributor to the increase of air rage. Airline ads still show flight attendants answering passengers' every wish. This is not possible because all the airlines have downsized to save money. 5) Alcohol and altitude don't mix. The inside of the airplane cabin is 8,000 feet. Passengers are afffected by alcohol more quickly than they realize at high altitudes. Drinking dehydrates people, and this can lead to irritability, fatigue and tunnel vision. Since alcohol also lowers inhibitions, why should we be surprised that it also magnifies the emotional reaction to the difficult flying environment? Most air rage incidents have been alcohol related. While "unruly" passengers have been a problem within the airline industry for many years, they are just now coming to the attention of the public, the press and Congress. Even flight attendants are speaking up--in spite of the gag orders most have signed with their respective airlines. Since passengers, not just crew, are being fondled and assaulted, Congress is investigating. But the chances of an effective response are slim considering the fact that minimal airplane air quality standards--debated in Congress since June 12, 1996--have yet to pass into law. HERE'S WHAT TO DO In case you find yourself on a flight with an air raged "unruly" passenger: --Rather than confront the offender directly, leave your seat and seek out the purser or senior flight attendant. The purser is usually found in first class, so bypass the flight attendants in coach. Give the purser the row and seat number of the unruly passenger. Remain calm and communicate clearly. --And if you have a tendency to be an unruly passenger, here's what you might consider. The airplane is a microcosm of humanity. There are high-techies next to hikers, politicians next to pilgrims, and business flyers next to bawdy kids. Keep in mind that the trip is a challenge for everyone on board. Tolerance and gestures of gentility could make your flights more pleasant--for you, and for everyone around you as well. --Please! Think what you can do to make it easier for others. Say "please." Be kind. Act on your compassion. FROM READERS "I am very much impressed with your work concerning health in flight. My findings concerning environmental anemia actually re-enforce your original insight that the lower air-pressure of the in -flight cabin can cause air rage. My own work on this subject delves into the physiology of the oxygen deprivation and my results back up your original thesis." --Dr. Ross Lee Graham, University of Linkoeping, Sweden .... "I think they should do away with drinking alcohol on flights just like they did cigarettes. It's a toxin, a drug, and a leading cause of violence."--Dee Pollock "To what extent, do you think, the no-smoking rule, on international flights, is contributing to the "air rage"? While I absolutely support the rule, my son-in-law, who smokes, became extremely irritable and aggressive on a flight to London last year. My daughter was ready to kill him. I can see how nicotine deprivation combined with alcohol could be a dangerous combination."--Evelyn Staus "I would suggest that the enraged passenger develops his/her rage at the plane or in the terminal in specific, direct, and immediate response to airline employee arrogance, incompetence, superciliousness, discourtesy, rudeness, ignorance, and disregard for normal courtesy, much less some things called professional standards and professional conduct and professional performance."--Thomas Ryan Nelson RELATED PAGES Radio Interviews on Air Rage Pilots Control the Cabin Air Fairechild's Passenger Bill of Rights FOR MORE DEPTH & INFORMATION, SEE DIANA'S BOOKS AND/OR WRITE TO DIANA . HOME | FREE | FAST | ABOUT | CONTACT | NEWSLETTER | RADIO | NONPROFIT | SEARCH EXPERT WITNESS | SPEAKING | CONSULTING | BOOKS | PRESS ROOM FLYANA.COM

Japan Travel

Outdoor Japan - Your guide to travel and the outdoors in Japan Outdoor Japan Magazine is the only bilingual magazine about travel and the outdoors in Japan. Have fun, meet friends, plan trips, buy gear , get inspired and get out there! OUTDOOR JAPAN MAGAZINE - CURRENT ISSUE OUTDOOR STORE DIRECTORY OUTDOOR JAPAN CLASSIFIEDS OUTDOOR OPERATORS - EXCITING ACTIVITIES GREAT PLACES TO STAY AROUND JAPAN EVENT & RACE CALENDARS A search for my fathers birthplace brought me to the land of rising suns and falling pink blossoms. Locals dubbed me KintaroGolden Boyafter the legendary Japanese character, and so began Kintaros journey that would last more than four months and 3,000 kilometers with nothing but an old sketch as a clue... I t had been raining since the previous day, and I could feel the thick moisture spread through the air, falling through the crevices of tree branches that covered the sky above. My rain gear was completely wet with humidity and sweatwhat a messyet my heart was like a sunny day filled with joy, soaking in the precipitous scenery. Yakushima is rain. Subscribe & Win! Subscribe to Outdoor Japan Magazine in until Nov. 30 for a chance to win tickets to the Banff Film Festival, Kintaro DVDs and a Deluxe Room for two nights with breakfasts (up to 4 people) at the Hotel Grand Mer in Okinawa! 購読して、当てちゃおう！ １０月にアウトドアジャパンの雑誌を購読すると、バンフ・フィルムフェスティバルのチケット、「金太郎日本をゆく」のDVD、沖縄のグランドメールホテルのデラックスルームにて２泊（朝食付き）無料宿泊（最大４名様）のチャンス、いずれかが当たるよ！ * News & Notes: Tokyo Real Ale Festival - Marianas Cup Beach Volleyball Tournament - Shin Yokohama 2006 Ski Trips - Japan Underwater Explorers * OJ Feature Story in BEPAL Magazine * OJ booth at the Kudos Travel Fair 2005 * New Video section! * OJ / JA Monthly Hiking Trips * Listen to Outdoor Japan's Adam Clark on Kanaz@wee! Podcast The Vault [Past Features] Join the OJ Newsletter . It's free and a great way to keep up with what's going. Just type in your e-mail address below. CLICK FOR LATEST NEWSLETTER OUTDOOR JAPAN WINTER SPORTS SECTION INTRODUCTION AREA GUIDE RESORT SPOTLIGHTS FEATURE STORIES WINTER GIVEAWAY COMING SOON! LATEST FEATURES Traveling this summer, I walked into Forest Rhythms, a pottery studio deep in the woods of the North Eastern United States owned Steve Hodgkin. A narrow strip of road leads four hours northward from Jaipur, through the desert to the land of Shekhavati, to extraordinary frescoed mansions in the sand. The castle town of Mandawa serves as the ideal anchor for a visit to Shekavati. By now most of us here in Japan are enjoying a bit of a reprieve from the stifling heat and humidity of summer. HyakumeizanJapans 100 Famous Mountains: #82 Yarigatake Traveler's Tune: Ben Folds' Island Retreat With a careful eye for deserted mountain roads, a cool late summer morning in Iwate Prefecture brought about a sensational downhill longboard carving session. The Local Brew: The Fishmarket Taproom, Numazu, Shizuoka（静岡県沼津市） Eco Corner: Choices for Sustainable Lifestyles The North Face Tadpole 23-Convertible Made for Japans humid weather Trail Recipes: Tamago Oziya (Egg & Rice Soup) Spirit of Silence: Like most people, I love traveling. However, I explore a soundless worldas I was born deaf. The samurai warriors who were exiled to Hokkaido set the tone for the type of rugged individualists that became the Dosanko (children of Hokkaido) of today. Off the tourist trail is about about little-known places such as Omine-okugake Trail spanning Nara and Wakayama Prefectures. If you are looking for a quick escape with the family, look north to Saitamas Chichibu Youth Outdoor Activity Center. OJ Video Section See some fun video clips of great places and activities in Japan. Outdoor Japan Classifieds (Japan & Int'l) NEW OUTDOOR OPERATORS Westylife specializes in VW Westfalia Campers. Sales, repair and customization in Japan. Come to The Outpost and learn to snowboard in English in beautiful Nozawa Onsen Village in Nagano. Great skiing and snowboarding in a traditional Japanese hot spring town. Skybus Sapporo is a great way to get to and from New Chitose Airport in Sapporo and where you are staying. Niseko, Furano & more. OkinawaAdventure in paradise! OAC is committed to providing the safest possible eco-friendly outdoor adventure experience that is also a lot of fun. NEW PLACES TO STAY Kanzanso is an onsen ryokan located in a quiet Oigami hot spring village in Gunma Prefecture. The Oigami area is surrounded by mountains rivers. Hotel Heights is located in Northern Nagano in the Shiga Kogen Ski Resort area, one of Japans most scenic and natural sites. Hotel Matsushima is the home of budget travelers in Tokyo, offering quality service and making life easy for foreigners, backpackers and travelers in Japan. Hotel Grand Mer brings you affordable luxury and impeccable style in the heart of Okinawa, Japan's tropical paradise. Fontana is a leading international real estate provider with over 800 furnished apartments and guesthouses conveniently located throughout Tokyo. BIGAIR Fukuoka Hakata, Fukuoka Studio Nada Ocean View Cottages Kashima, Ibaraki We welcome comments, suggestions, reviews and contributions. Enjoy! home ׀ write for oj ׀ send in a review ׀ advertise ׀ contact us All contents Outdoor Japan Y.K. All rights reserved.

European Vacation There's a

Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis - The Region - European Vacation (December 2003) I'm at: Home > Publications > The Region > December 2003 > Article Publications Expand All Collapse All The Region Index by Issue Interviews President's Columns fedgazette Index by Issue Topics Index Annual Report Quarterly Review Community Dividend Banking and Policy Studies Articles Toolbox ( advanced search ) December 2003 European Vacation There's a simple reason Americans work longer hours than Europeans, says economist Ed Prescott. And it isn't what you think Douglas Clement Editor It's no secret that Europeans work less than Americans do. Every Labor Day the media tell us that Europeans have just enjoyed weeks of summer vacation while Americans have been toiling away. These stories often depict Americans as hard-working drones who revere material possessions above all else. Europeans meanwhile bask in the good life of long lunches and months at the beach. There is some truth to the portrayal, at least in terms of hours worked. The International Labor Organization reports that the average American worked 1,815 hours in 2002, well above the comparable figures for France (1,545) and Germany (1,444), for example. (The average South Korean, on the other hand, worked over 2,400 hours.) But if it's widely acknowledged that Americans work more hours than Europeans, it remains a puzzle quite why there's such a large difference. With similar economies and social structures—at least relative to the rest of the world—it would seem that labor patterns should also be alike. Social scientists have been hard-pressed to explain the disparity. Most accounts focus on cultural explanations. The most popular is the notion that Europeans have a fuller appreciation of la dolce vita —the sweet life—the Italian version of the idea that life is to be enjoyed, not endured. Work is a means to an end, not an end in itself. The idea of cultural and religious influences on economic activity isn't new. German sociologist Max Weber wrote The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism nearly a century ago, attributing the rise of capitalist economies to the “Protestant work ethic.” It was an immensely persuasive theory in its time, and derivative explanations have held great sway ever since. “Why do Europeans and Americans differ so much in their attitude toward work and leisure? I can think of two reasons,” opines a recent Time magazine essay. “Broadly speaking, Americans value stuff—SUVs, 7,000-sq.-ft. houses—more than they value time, while for Europeans it's the opposite. Second, ... in the puritanical version of Christianity that has always appealed to Americans, religion comes packaged with the stern message that hard work is good for the soul. Modern Europe has avoided so melancholy a lesson.” “It all comes down to what people feel is important and how they feel about their lives,” argues a September 2003 U.S. News & World Report editorial. “We value more money and more stuff; they value more leisure time. ... We are proud of being busy—it is a virtue; being idle is perceived as a vice.” Economic explanations Economists have always been suspect of such cultural explanations. Standard economic theory assumes that people's preferences are, on average, homogeneous, and that choices depend largely on economic factors. Still, while economists agree that dollars and cents lie behind the work pattern differential, there is little harmony among them as to the right economic explanation. Some economists say work regulations keep Europeans from working longer hours and point favorably to recent European reforms on vacation time. Others argue that greater inequality in the United States motivates workers to try harder to get ahead. Most of these explanations come from the perspective of labor economics and its core belief that social structures and institutions such as unions are the major determinants of labor patterns. But in a recent series of papers and lectures, Edward C. Prescott, senior monetary adviser to the Minneapolis Fed and economist at Arizona State University, looks at the labor supply question through the prism of the growth model—a different perspective altogether—and provides a convincing and remarkably straightforward explanation for the dramatic differences in hours worked. It is an explanation that has far-reaching implications for policymakers—and for anyone else who's ever received a paycheck. According to Prescott, the reason for these large differences in labor supply is not culture. “French, Japanese, and U.S. workers all have similar preferences,” he writes. “The French are not better at enjoying leisure. The Japanese are not compulsive savers.” The reason for the wide range in working hours is, in a word, taxes. Europeans supply less labor because there's a much larger wedge in most European countries between what a worker is paid and what that worker actually gets to keep after taxes are taken out. This tax wedge, argues Prescott, distorts the trade-off people make between consumption and leisure by making consumption more expensive. And since people work, ultimately, to earn money to pay for consumption goods, they'll supply less labor if consumption goods become relatively more expensive. The cheaper alternative: leisure. Hello, Riviera. If the concept seems straightforward, its evolution was anything but. Like most ideas that seem obvious in retrospect, the awareness that taxes distort labor markets dramatically and account for major international differences in work patterns came about indirectly and as a revelation to those who happened upon it. The discovery Prescott's discovery about the role of taxes in labor supply variation began, simply enough, in his classroom at the University of Minnesota, where he taught from 1980 to 2003. “I was making up exercises for my students,” he recalled in a recent interview. “I said, 'use this nice little growth model.'” The “nice little model” he presented to his students is the workhorse of modern macroeconomics; it says, mathematically, that a nation's total output (or gross domestic product, GDP) is dependent on three sources: labor, capital and the efficiency (or productivity) with which it merges them to create economic value. The other key part of this standard theory is, in the jargon of economics, a utility function: a formula representing the notion that households try to maximize their happiness by finding the best possible combination of leisure and consumption, given their resources. Prescott wanted his students to become familiar with this model by looking at how it performed in different nations over time, and how key variables—capital endowments, productivity, labor supply—could account for differences among nations in per capita GDP. “I wanted to try to get across the basic ideas and the importance of productivity,” said Prescott. “And then I thought, let's put a few taxes in.” The intuition was far more significant than Prescott suspected, but that became clear only after looking at the relative contributions of capital, productivity and labor. The data, compiled by the United Nations and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, showed that in the mid-1990s among developed countries—the United States, much of Europe and Japan—relative levels of capital differ little and explain just a small portion of the variation in per capita GDP (see adjacent table). “The capital factor is not an important factor in accounting for differences in incomes across the OECD countries,” writes Prescott in his 2002 Richard T. Ely Lecture to the American Economic Association. “[It] contributes at most 8 percent to the differences in income between any of these countries.” Capital, Labor, Productivity and GDP 1993-96 Country Capital/ Output Ratio (1990) Hours worked per Week per Person 15-64 Productivity: GDP per hour Worked; US=100 GDP per Person 15-64; US=100 Germany 2.7 19.3 99 74 France 2.2 17.5 110 74 Italy 2.6 16.5 90 57 Canada na 22.9 89 79 United Kingdom 2.6 22.8 76 67 Japan 2.5 27.0 74 78 United States 2.3 25.9 100 100 Source: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Research Department Staff Report 321 and Working Paper 618 . Productivity, on the other hand, is very important, at least for some national differences. Japan and the United States, for example, have similar levels of labor and capital, but per capita GDP in Japan is far below that in the United States because its productivity is less than three-quarters that of the United States. But what of European countries like France, Italy and Germany? Why are their levels of per capita GDP so much lower? All these nations have capital endowments comparable to the United States. Their productivity levels also are similar to U.S. rates, or in the case of France, even higher. The data suggest that the differences in wealth are due almost exclusively to the markedly lower number of hours worked in these European countries. Germany, for instance, had a slightly higher capital endowment than the United States and an equal level of productivity, but just 74 percent of the U.S. per capita GDP. The evident reason: Its workers supplied just over 19 hours of labor per week compared to nearly 26 hours a week per American worker. While many believe that cultural differences lead to fewer hours worked in Europe than in the United States, Prescott doubts it. After all, data from the early 1970s show that the French actually worked more hours per week than did Americans at that time. Has French culture changed radically over the last two decades? Probably not: They still like good wine, aged cheese and, inexplicably, Jerry Lewis. Prescott's hunch was that differences in marginal tax rates might explain the differences in labor supplied and thus account for differences in per capita GDP. Enter the tax wedge “What is important is the price of consumption relative to leisure,” Prescott writes in the lecture he gave in April 2003 as he accepted Northwestern University's prestigious Erwin Plein Nemmers Prize in Economics. “And it is determined by the consumption tax rate and the labor income tax rate.” (See the lecture, “ Why Do Americans Work So Much More Than Europeans? ”) By introducing these taxes into the growth model, and making standard microeconomic assumptions, Prescott derived what he calls “the key equilibrium relation.” 1 It's a mathematical formula for labor supply that says workers will supply labor dependent on, among other things, their preference for consumption now over consumption later (spend or save?), their preference for leisure relative to consumption (play or work?) and the effective tax rate. Holding the first two variables fixed and looking empirically at different national tax rates enables Prescott to see if tax differences can account, fully or partially, for variations in labor hours supplied. Estimating the effective tax rates in these countries was, in itself, a major accounting exercise. Consumption taxes include value-added taxes, sales taxes, excise taxes and property taxes. Labor is subject to both income taxes and Social Security taxes. For each nation under consideration, Prescott and his students crunched the numbers, determined a tax rate, plugged it into the formula along with fixed estimates of the other variables, and derived predictions of labor hours supplied per week per worker. How good were the predictions? Dead-on for Germany and the United Kingdom, a bit low for Canada and the United States, and a bit high for the other countries (see table below). Given measurement inaccuracies, the rough nature of the tax-rate estimates and the difficulty of international comparisons, writes Prescott, the model's predictions were “surprisingly close to the actual.” Tax Rates and Labor Supply 1993-96 Country Tax Rate (percent) Actual Hours Worked per Week per Person 15-64 Predicted Hours Worked per Week per Person 15-64 Difference (Predicted Minus Actual) Germany 59 19.3 19.5 0.2 France 59 17.5 19.5 2.0 Italy 64 16.5 18.8 2.3 Canada 52 22.9 21.3 -1.6 United Kingdom 44 22.8 22.8 0.0 Japan 37 27.0 29.0 2.0 United States 40 25.9 24.6 -1.3 Source: “ Why Do Americans Work So Much More Than Europeans ?” Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Research Department Staff Report 321. Here, notes Prescott, “the important observation is that the low labor supplies in Germany, France and Italy are due to high tax rates. In these countries if someone works more and produces 100 additional euros of output, that individual gets to consume only 40 euros of additional consumption and pays directly or indirectly 60 euros in taxes.” Put in such stark terms, it seems obvious that many Europeans might opt to work less, while Americans and Japanese, taxed more lightly, would be keen to put in extra hours. Confirmation and implications Prescott found further confirmation for his hypothesis when he looked at tax rates and labor supply in the early 1970s (see table below). While his model's predictions of labor hours supplied diverge from the actual in several cases—Italy and Japan, in particular—Prescott observes that “when European and U.S. tax rates were comparable, European and U.S. labor supplies were roughly equal.” Tax Rates and Labor Supply 1970-74 Country Tax Rate (percent) Actual Hours Worked per Week per Person 15-64 Predicted Hours Worked per Week per Person 15-64 Difference (Predicted Minus Actual) Germany 52 24.6 24.6 0.0 France 49 24.4 25.4 1.0 Italy 41 19.2 28.3 9.1 Canada 44 22.2 25.6 3.4 United Kingdom 45 25.9 24.0 -1.9 Japan 25 29.8 35.8 6.0 United States 40 23.5 26.4 2.9 Source: “ Why Do Americans Work So Much More Than Europeans ?” Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Research Department Staff Report 321. As for the outliers, Italy and Japan, Prescott suggests that other factors may be significant. In Italy, cartels may have played a role in depressing labor supply below its predicted value. In Japan, significant measurement errors in actual hours worked could account for the overly high prediction by the model. And what seems another anomaly is very likely an indirect confirmation of the importance of marginal tax rates on labor supply, according to Prescott. In the United States, actual hours worked per person increased by 10 percent from the 1970s to the 1990s, though the marginal tax rate remained at 40 percent. Prescott argues that U.S. tax reforms in the 1980s changed the effective marginal tax faced by married couples—dropping the rate in half for the second earner's income—even though it remained nominally at 40 percent. “In the 1993-96 [period],” he writes, “the marginal income tax on the labor income associated with switching between a one-earner and a two-earner household is only 20 percent, not 40 percent.” The issue warrants more attention, he says, and indeed, his colleagues Larry Jones, Rodolfo Manuelli and Ellen McGrattan have recently released a paper on this exact question. (See “ Wives at Work .”) On the whole, Prescott states, the results show that “people are remarkably similar across countries” and not only for these relatively prosperous and homogeneous nations, but for Chile, Mexico and Argentina, as well, where other economists have found similar relationships. “Apparently, idiosyncratic preference differences average out and result in the [representative] household having almost identical preferences across countries.” The policy implications are enormous for high-tax countries. If France were to lower its effective tax rate from 60 percent to 40 percent, estimates Prescott, its people would work more (taking 6.6 percent less leisure) and—remember their high productivity?—would generate considerably more output. Tax revenues wouldn't diminish, because the 40 percent rate would be levied on a higher base. And overall French “welfare gains,” as economists put it, would increase nearly 20 percent. In the United States, reducing marginal tax rates would have a more modest impact, according to the model: A 10 percent rate reduction would produce a 7 percent welfare gain. But even in the United States, Prescott's findings have huge implications for the viability of the Social Security system. (See “ Shrinking a deadweight loss .”) Foreign affairs In recent months, Prescott has traveled widely, presenting his findings not only to American audiences but to economists and policymakers in London, Berlin, Toulouse, Tokyo and elsewhere overseas. And in fact, says Prescott, Europeans tend to be more receptive than Americans. “The economists there understand that there is a problem,” he said after returning from France in mid-September. “I got some excellent suggestions when I presented the paper, the best so far.” But at all venues, he observes, the common denominator is surprise. Prescott is the first to admit that he, too, thought the results were startling, unexpected. “I find it remarkable that virtually all of the large difference in labor supply between France and the United States is due to differences in tax systems,” he writes in his Ely lecture. “I expected institutional constraints on the operation of labor markets and the nature of the unemployment benefit system to be more important.” Moreover, he concedes that cultural explanations might carry the day in a few settings. “Scandinavians seem to be a little bit different,” he said recently, referring to research by Richard Rogerson, an economist at Arizona State University. “My theory is when one of those Swedes looks at you when you're not working, it's pretty intimidating.” More seriously, he allows that in small, homogeneous cultures, social pressures can be quite strong. But even in large, heterogeneous nations, tax wedges don't always tell the whole story, according to Prescott. “Taxes are not the only reason that the labor factors differ,” says Prescott's Ely lecture. Unemployment benefits and housing subsidies—not taxes—distorted labor mobility in the United Kingdom between the first and second World Wars, contributing significantly to that country's interwar depression. New Deal policies supporting cartels in America's heavy industries distorted wages and employment in the last half of the 1930s, contributing to the depth and duration of the Great Depression in the United States. Similarly, cartels in 1970s Italy may have suppressed employment there. Prescott relies on work by University of California, Los Angeles economists Harold Cole and Lee Ohanian in making these conjectures. Still, while taxes aren't the all-powerful explanatory factor for all nations and eras, Prescott contends that in major developed countries in the time period under consideration, the labor supply impact of tax wedges is a powerful and undeniable fact. Other academics As befits the work of any prominent scholar, Prescott's theory has attracted close academic scrutiny—beyond the initial reaction of surprise—from both adherents and critics. In one recent paper, Peter Lindert, an economist at the University of California, Davis, refers to Prescott's study as dependent upon “a theoretical model heavily laden with assumptions. It is educated, intelligent, plausible fiction—but fiction nonetheless.” On the other hand (as Lindert points out) Prescott's model and findings are cited quite favorably by Nobel Laureate Robert Lucas in his 2003 presidential address to the American Economic Association. Lindert calls for empirical tests. Steven Davis at the University of Chicago Graduate School of Business and Magnus Henrekson of the Stockholm School of Economics oblige with a careful econometric analysis of the impact of labor income and consumption taxes on employment and work activity. In their study of rich countries in the mid-1990s, they find that a 12.8 percentage point difference in tax rates is associated with 122 fewer market work hours per adult per year and nearly a 5 percentage point decrease in employment—population ratios—an indirect affirmation of Prescott's theory. A very different perspective was presented earlier this year in a series of lectures by British economist Richard Layard, co-director of the Centre for Economic Performance at the London School of Economics. Layard takes issue with GDP itself as a satisfactory measure of human welfare—or utility, as Jeremy Bentham and subsequent economists have termed it—noting that “happiness has not increased, despite huge increases in living standards.” To summarize a lengthy argument, Layard's idea is that a tax wedge on labor income could actually increase utility by decreasing a sort of pollution: overwork brought on by the inherent human desire to do better than our peers, regardless of our absolute level of income. Keeping up with the Joneses, in other words, leads to overwork, ill health and unhappiness—rivalry distorts the leisure/labor decision. Appropriate public policy should diminish this pollution by taxing it. “In an efficient economy,” Layard writes, “there will be substantial levels of corrective taxation ... 60 percent would not seem inappropriate, and that is in fact the typical level of marginal taxation in Europe—if you allow for direct and indirect taxes.” Prescott responds Prescott's reactions to these ideas vary widely. Sitting in his seventh-floor office at the Minneapolis Fed, he reads through the first pages of Lindert's paper, then drops it on his desk. “It doesn't seem to be coherent,” he says. Davis and Henrekson's study, on the other hand, intrigues him. That might seem predictable given its broad support of Prescott's findings, but Davis and Henrekson employ a technique Prescott generally scorns: statistical regression. “Progress, don't regress,” he says with a smile, quoting the slogan featured prominently on his Internet home page. Regardless of their method, Prescott is drawn to the findings and has invited Davis to Minneapolis to get a closer look at their work. But Prescott's response to Layard's argument—more complete and nuanced—conveys a sense of Prescott himself. He begins by summarizing Layard's case in a phrase: “I'm happy if I have a lot more income—than you,” he says, grinning and quite aware that he does. As to the overwork such rivalry might cause, “that just says there's a consumption externality.” Then he conveys the concept with a story. “I always tried to create a positive externality in Pittsburgh for my neighbors who had these beautiful lawns,” he jokes of his grad school days at Carnegie Mellon University. “By my having a messy lawn, their lawns looked so much better. I mowed it, but I didn't do much else with my lawn. And it gave me utility to see them happier.” He tells the story with a verbal wink, acknowledging silently that his Pittsburgh yard care externality may well have been less than zero. The conspiratorial smile changes to professorial zeal as he begins to dissect Layard's reasoning: “Suppose everybody cares about relative consumption as well as own consumption. You work out the equilibrium, it's not Pareto optimal. Let's deal with the case where everybody enters symmetrically. So it's simple to make the ordering. Well, you can make everybody better off by just putting a tax on consumption so that they work less. That's a very standard model. Now what would be the empirical evidence for and against that?” In under five minutes, Prescott has crystallized an argument, communicated it to a visitor in plain language and personal anecdote, then converted it to the idiom of economics and laid out steps for its confirmation or refutation. It's vintage Prescott: analytically brilliant, unexpectedly funny and several beats ahead of everyone else. That last bit is the essence of a conversation with the economist. When you ask him a question, it sometimes seems that his reply is off-topic; then it dawns on you that Ed Prescott is answering the question you should have asked. A pattern of surprise Prescott's willingness to entertain alternatives, to listen to critics, to incorporate the unexpected is deeply characteristic of his work. That flexibility is, in fact, the paradoxical outcome of a rigid research discipline. In setting model parameters, for instance, or reporting research results, “the investigator has no degrees of freedom,” he says. “You have to tie your hands and if there's a deviation from your predictions, you report it. You can speculate on why, but you've got to be totally honest.” Intellectual honesty also means allowing findings to modify, even subvert initial hypotheses. It happens frequently, says Prescott. Much of the work for which he's best known—theories on time inconsistency, real business cycles, the equity premium and growth theory—has been developed in an ongoing process of research and revelation. “When I work out the implications, I'm quite often surprised: The findings change my views quite dramatically,” he says. “When I did the real business cycles work with Finn Kydland, I was certain that monetary shocks were the reason the economy fluctuated with the business cycles. Our findings were just the opposite. When I did some work with Rajnish Mehra on the equity premium puzzle, I was certain that the reason for the high historical difference in the return on equity relative to debt was just a premium for bearing aggregate, nondiversifiable risk. We found it wasn't.” For time inconsistency and the impact of taxes on labor supply, as well, surprise has been an intrinsic part of the process. Future direction As striking as his labor supply findings are—and though many aspects of it remain unresolved—Prescott senses that the big theoretical questions in economic growth lie elsewhere, and he is now turning his attention to them. “I think I've had my say on labor supply,” he concludes. In his Ely lecture, he lays out three sources of economic growth: capital, labor and productivity. The first two are important in understanding why some nations remain poor while others prosper, but the central question, contends Prescott, is what determines productivity? “Given productivity, our macro models are great,” he says. “But we treat it as exogenous. We've got to have a better understanding of mapping between policies and productivity.” In other words, what can governments do to enhance productivity? Prescott's main candidates are efficient financial markets, competition among producers and trading clubs. And currently, the last is his major focus. “What is a trading club?” he asks rhetorically. “Well, first, free movement of goods between the member states. But it's much, much more than that. ...” Prescott continues at length, with a discourse ranging from Toyota factories in Wales to trade among the U.S. states in the 19th century. He speaks quickly, and as he does there is a sense that each research question he asks leads him to a dozen more, each more interesting than the last. He will travel soon to Warsaw and then Bogotá to explore these ideas with other economists and policymakers. “It's going to be fascinating to see what's happening in Poland,” he remarks. In Colombia, “the president is trying to do some good things there, and we have to go down and help out.” He's not a policymaker himself. “I leave that to other people,” he says. “I'm no good at it. My comparative advantage is working out implications of theory.” And in so doing, it seems there is just one constraint: Even for Ed Prescott, a scholar who understands labor supply dynamics as well as anyone on earth, there are only 24 hours in a day. “Time,” observes the economist, “is the most valuable resource.” 1 The two assumptions: (1) that people decide between leisure and consumption based on their relative prices, at the margin, and (2) that in a competitive market, wages are equal to their marginal product of labor. The “key equilibrium relation” also depends on the share of a nation's output due to capital. Top of document Advanced Search Glossary See also: Shrinking a deadweight loss